نکته 1
اشتباه: خسته نباشید
Don't be tired.
More power to you.
صحیح: در چنین مواقعی در کلاس درس بهتر است
Thanh you sir
I enjoyed your class sir
Good job sir
استفاده شود.
نکته 2
اشتباه: چای چسبید
THe tea stuck
صحیح:
The tea gave me a real buzz
نکته 3
اشتباه: پدرم دراومد.
My father came out
صحیح:
I had one of those days
I had a tough time
Good luck
You are unlikely to learn to speak a new language perfectly, but perfection should not be your goal. Your main goal should be effective communication. I am not perfect in any of the languages that I speak, but I can communicate, and whenever I communicate in another language I’m satisfied. I also know from experience that my ability to speak and to pronounce well will only improve with time, as long as I remain alert to what I hear and read, and how I use the language.
Here are the steps I take when trying to improve my oral skills:
I mean more than one hour a day, just about every day. Search our language libraries on LingQ for content, find items that interest you and download them. Transfer them to your phone or MP3 player and study on the go, wherever you are, and whenever you have the time. Just listen and listen. You will start with short, easier content and graduate to longer more interesting content. Just keep doing it. Ideally listen to material where you also have the transcript so that you have a better chance of understanding it.
Reading, and especially saving words and phrases from your reading at LingQ, is the best way to increase your vocabulary. To express yourself you need words. To communicate you need to understand what the other person is saying, and this requires even more words. Reading and LingQing will give you the vocabulary you need to become a confident speaker. The combination of reading and speaking will enable your brain to become used to the new language, and this will build up your potential to speak well.
Listening when combined with reading will fill your brain with phrases you recognize and will eventually be able to use. You may want to imitate out loud the odd word or phrase, even as you are listening. This is sometimes referred to as shadowing. But you need even more practice at getting the words out. Listen a few minutes to content for which you have the transcript, and where you like the voice and the way the person speaks. After listening, read the same text out loud trying to imitate the way the person speaks. Focus on the rhythm and intonation. Don’t worry about words that you mispronounce, get the rhythm and flow. Do this over and over.
Writing is a great way to start producing the language. You may not really feel like writing much at first. The dictation function at LingQ is a great way to get into the writing habit. You will only be writing out the words and phrases that you have saved. Hopefully that will give you the confidence to write more. Submit your writing for correction at LingQ if you want. The main thing, however, is to write to get used to expressing things in the language, without the pressure of speaking with someone.
Use of words is more important than pronunciation. However, we all like to work on getting closer to the pronunciation of the native speaker, although we won’t quite get there. In order to work on pronunciation, you can practice recording yourself every now and again, perhaps once or twice a month but not too often. Find content of interest at LingQ, listen to the audio, then read the same content out loud and record yourself. Listen for the differences. This is your chance to work on specific sounds. It is important to notice the words that you mispronounce and then try to notice these sounds when listening to the language. If you can notice them, you will have a better chance of pronouncing them correctly.
If you can find someone to speak to where you live, that is great. However, there are many online sites, as well as LingQ, where you can find native speakers to speak with. Don’t worry about your mistakes, even encourage your partner not to correct you while you speak. Our tutors at LingQ send learners a conversation report with a list of words and phrases that caused trouble. This report can be imported as a lesson. The main thing, however, is to speak more and more, ideally on subjects of mutual interest to you and your native speaker partner.
![\"chomskian](https://www.rozblog.com/panel326482400/\"http:/www.textetc.com/pics/illus24.jpeg\")
OverviewChomsky\'s deep grammar and its various offspring are the best known of current linguistic theories. Developed to explain the ease with which children learn a language, and adults produce correct sentences, the theory envisages a common underlying structure to all languages, and a complex set of rules to generate individual utterances.
The school was never without its critics, however, and matters have lately become very complicated.
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IntroductionNoam Chomsky {1} claims not to be a Structuralist — is indeed sharply critical of all attempts to exclude the individual — but his deep grammar grew out of the argument between behaviourists like Bloomfield and structuralists like Zellig Harris (under whom he trained). Chomsky\'s linguistics is a \"top down\" approach, starting from syntax and competent speech rather than individual phonemes. Bloomfield (1887-1947) and his fellow behaviourists held that the sign (which for Saussureans was a concept) meant simply the non-verbal activity that it substituted for. We couldn\'t say more. The activities of the brain were inaccessible to us, and we shouldn\'t theorize about what we can\'t observe. Phonemes (the elemental, recognizable sound unit) were neither an acoustic entity nor a determinate of meaning, but simply how we divide up language.
Chomsky, in contrast, argued that our astonishing creativity with words, and the phenomenal ease with which children learn a language, meant that language users employed and intuitively recognized an underlying structure. Not a structure, moreover, resting on phonemes or individual words as Ramon Jakobson would have it, but a sort of fundamental, proto-syntax. Any well-formed sentence, for example, contains a noun-phrase (NP) and verb-phrase (VB). From this we could create all possible sentences: The old tutor well described the difficulties. Or: The difficulties were well described by the old tutor. By transformation rules the deep structure can be converted to surface sentences with the correct syntax. But what of: The old tutor elaborated the difficulties? The meaning is practically the same: we might chose either. But is this a different transformation or a different deep structure? And how do we make the choice or substitution? Critics say that Chomsky\'s grammar is simply formalizing what is still a mystery. {2}
Deep structure is the abstract underlying form, which determines the meaning of a sentence. Surface structure is what we write or speak. The two are connected by transformations like combination, addition and deletion. Or so Chomsky first argued. But in his Reflections on Language, Chomsky drew up something much more complicated. There were two structures or trees: one for deep and one for surface sentences. Transformation rules linked the two. Ambiguous sentences had two deep structures. Now the sequence was: The base tree was constructed with building rules and a lexicon. The transformation component mapped deep structures onto surface structures. A phonological component intervened to convert surface structures to surface sentences.
DifficultiesThereafter matters grew more complicated still. Grammarians needed a further subsystem to convert deep structures via semantic component to semantic representation. Why? Because grammarians were concerned with problems of their own — synonymy, similarity of meaning, redundancy, ambiguity and entailment. {3}
Further problems arose over quantifiers, negation and movement rules. Chomsky\'s initial assumptions were fourfold. Firstly that transformations preserved meaning, i.e. that surface structure was linked to meaning only by deep structures. Secondly, that transformational rules were simple and did only one thing at a time. Thirdly that the deep structures were similar to surface structures. And fourthly that transformational rules were the only rules needed to link surface and deep structures. Now it appears that all four cannot be held jointly. Generative Semantics holds to the first but not the third or fourth. Extended Standard Theory holds to the second, third and fourth. Trace Theory holds to the second, third and fourth again, but claims that all information on the deep structure is to be found in the surface structure. It envisages this generation sequence: deep structure to transformational component to surface structure to semantic component to semantic representation. Trace theory seems to be better supported by phonetic evidence, though complications arise with ambiguous sentences, which require two surface and two deep sentences.{3}
Leaving aside such professional disputes, what exactly can we say of these structures and procedures? In what sense are they real, existing in our brains, our innate behaviour, our social training? Just as with Structuralism, very different interpretations have been advanced. Do we (a) behave as if we follow rules, i.e. simply know how? Do we (b) actually know the rules as rules and blindly follow them? Or do we (c) recognize the rules and conscientiously apply them, i.e. know that something is actually the case? Philosophers insist on pursuing such distinctions, and of course disagree.
AchievementsChomsky, and grammarians in general, dislike the whole tenor of that debate. Their job is simply to identify grammatically correct sentences, and display linguistic competence as a characteristic of the human mind. Some philosophers are satisfied with (a), saying that human beings simply have an ability to learn languages, about which little more can be said at present. We can all ride a bicycle without knowing the mechanics involved. Other philosophers, adopting (b), regard the rules as psychologically real, even though they are hidden from all but professional (Chomskian) grammarians, and laboratory testing has not found that response times necessarily reflect rule complexity. {3} And some, examining option (c), ask in what (simpler) language we can \"see\" the rules — without starting an infinite regress in asking how that simpler language is in turn \"seen\". Perhaps we do have some basic, innate language hardwired into our brains, a mentalese as Jerry Fodor terms it. {4}
At this point comes a parting of the ways. Logicians have tried to represent the structures in symbols of formal logic and arrive at the truth conditions of sentences. In many cases, notably those involving quantifiers, this has proved very difficult. Grammarians, however, have simply concerned themselves with the structures of natural languages, mapping sentences on \"semantic representations\". Being possible interpretations of sentences, rather than meanings as such, these \"semantic representations\" do not give logicians what they want. The latter see the relationship between the word and the world outside as the central problem of meaning. The grammarians see language as a self-contained global system, and are concerned largely with synonymy, similarity of meaning, redundancy, ambiguity and entailment.
SignificanceWhere does that leave us? Several points need to be made. Firstly that an enormous amount of effort has gone into Chomskian grammar: thirty years of work by thousands of linguists. Some of their approaches are open to criticism — the introspection, and the emphasis on model-building rather than model-testing. There is also doubt among some linguists whether languages like Chinese really fit the Chomskian model. {5} But no one should underestimate its achievements, which belong to a league quite different from the flimsy works of the continental Structuralists. Chomskian documentation is extensive, and the reasoning carefully argued through.
Notwithstanding, the connection of language with meaning has proved more complicated and elusive than was originally hoped. Agreement is as difficult to reach as in linguistic philosophy. Difficulties continue to appear the deeper one looks.
What constraints does Chomskian grammar place on what we can do with language? Literary theorists of many persuasions see language as mediating between ourselves and reality, and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposed that language actually shaped our perceptions. Again, there is no real consensus. Grammatical competence is not meaning necessarily: \"green ideas sleep furiously\", to quote a famous example, is grammatically correct but nonsense all the same. Do the innate structures of language, to the extent that they exist, place filters on our understanding in the way argued by Kant? Is perhaps Chomskian linguistics a brake on creativity even, telling us that there are limits to what we can think or imagine, limits just as powerful as those imposed by society, and arising from the same reasons: social activities reflecting our basic makeup?
It depends. {6} Realist, who believe that language develops and adjusts to our interactions with real things in the world, argue that there can be no language that allows us to see the world in radically different outlines. Chomsky\'s work in this case is simply concerned with syntax, correct grammar. Even philosophers like Heidegger, they would argue, who fashion their own language to evade the limiting categories of current thought, still need the conventions of syntax to make themselves understood. Poststructuralists, in contrast, who argue against the view that language is constituted by its external relations, and believe that meaning is isomorphous with language, make strenuous efforts to escape the \"prison bars of language\": the playful anti-rationalism of Foucault and Derrida. The more widely read among them might even argue that the nonliterary arts each have their own language {7}, not readily inter-translated (the problems of hermeneutics) and that Kuhn and others have shown that scientific revolutions not only change our view of the world, but the very meaning of our terms. {8}Debate continues, though more within disciplines than across this fundamental philosophical divide.
This and other pages in the theory section have been collected into a free pdf ebook entitled \'A Background to Literary Theory\'. Click here for the download page.
References1. Deep grammar is well covered by linguistic textbooks. See Noam Chomsky\'s Language and Responsibility (1979) for his position vis a vis Structuralism. Also p. 203 of J.L. Merquior\'s From Prague to Paris (1986)), Chapter 2 of John Passmore\'s Recent Philosophers (1988), Chapter 7 in Howard Gardner\'s The Mind\'s New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (1985), and Steven Pinker\'s The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind (1994) for the difficulties. A very useful bibliography is to be found on pp. 141-145 of Passmore 1988.
2. Chapter 13 of Richard Harland\'s Superstructuralism and Post-Structuralism (1987).
3. Chapter 6 of Michael Devitt and Kim Sterelny\'s An Introduction to the Philosophy of Language(1987).
4. Jerry Fodor\'s Representations (1981).
5. Chapter 6 of Geoffrey Sampson\'s Schools of Linguistics: Competition and Evolution (1980).
6. Chapter 4 of Fred D\'Agostino\'s Chomsky\'s System of Ideas (1986).
7. Nelson Goodman\'s The Languages of Art (1968).
8. pp. 95-97 in Passmore 1988.
Abandon
A- When Roy abandoned his family, the police went looking for him
B- The soldier could not abandon his friends who were hurt in battle
C- Because Rose was poor, she had to abandon her idea of going to college
ترک کردن – دست کشیدن
الف- وقتی ” روی ” خانواده اش را ترک کرد پلیس به جستجویش شتافت.
ب- سرباز نتوانست دوستانش را که در جنگ آسیب دیده بودند ترک کند.
ج- چون ” رز ” فقیر بود از فکر رفتن به دانشگاه دست کشید.
Keen
A- The butcher’s keen knife cut through the meat
B- My dog has a keen sense of smell
C- Bill’s keen mind pleased all his teachers
تیز- مشتاق- قوی
الف- چاقوی تیز قصاب گوشت را قطعه قطعه کرد.
ب- سگ من حس بویایی قوی دارد.
ج- ذهن مشتاق بیل معلمانش را راضی کرد.
Jealous
A- A detective was hired by the jealous widow to find the boyfriend who had abandoned her
B- Although my neighbor just bought a new car. I am not jealous of him
C- Being jealous, Mona would not let her boyfriend dance with any of cheerleaders
حسود
الف- بیوه زن حسود کاراگاهی را استخدام کرد تا دوستش را که از او جدا شده بود پیدا کند
ب- با اینکه همسایه ام به تازگی ماشین جدیدی ه به او حسادت نمی کنم.
ج- “مونا” حسود است و اجازه نمی دهد دوست پسرش با هیچ یک از معرکه گیر ها برقصد.
Tact
a- My aunt never hurts anyone’s feeling because she always uses tact.
b- By the use of tact, Janet was able to calm her jealous husband.
c- Your friends will admire you if you use tact and thoughtfulness.
تدبیر
الف- خاله ام هرگز احساسات کسی را جریحه دار نمی کند چون که او همیشه باتدبیر است.
ب- “ژانت” توانست با استفاده از تدبیر شوهر حسودش را آرام کند.
ج- اگر تدبیر و دقت داشته باشید دوستانتان شما را ستایش خواهند کرد.
Oath
A- The president will take the oath of office tomorrow
B- In court, the witness took an oath that he would tell whole truth
C- When Terry discovered that he had been abandoned he let out an angry oath
سوگند- دشنام
الف- فردا رئیس جمهور سوگند اداری می خورد.
ب- شاهد در دادگاه سوگند یاد کرد که حقیقت محض را بگوید.
ج- وقتی “تری” فهمید که او را ترک کرده اند از روی عصبانیت دشنام داد.
Vacant
A- Someone is planning to build a house on that vacant lot
B- I put my coat on the vacant seat
C- When the landlord broke in, he found that apartment vacant
خالی
الف- کسی قصد دارد روی آن قطعه زمین خالی خانه بسازد.
ب- من کت خود را روی نیمکت خالی گذاشتم.
ج- وقتی صاحب خانه در را شکست و وارد شد با آپارتمان خالی مواجه شد.
Hardship
A- The fighter had to face many hardships before he became champion
B- Abe Lincoln was able to overcome one hardship after another
C- On account of hardship, Bert was let out of the army to take care of his sick mother
سختی- مشکلات
الف- جنگجو پیش ازآنکه قهرمان شود مجبور بود با سختی زیادی مواجه شود.
ب- “آبراهام لینکلن” قادر بود مشکلات را یکی پس ار دیگری از میان بردارد.
ج- “برت” بدلیل مشکلاتش اجازه یافت ارتش را ترک کند تا از مادر بیمارش مراقبت نماید.
Gallant
a- The pilot swore a gallant oath to save his buddy
b- Many gallant knights entered the contest to win the princess
c- Ed is so gallant that he always gives up his subway seat to a woman
شجاع- برای ن احترام قائل شدن
الف- خلبان سوگند دلیرانه یاد کرد دوستش را نجات دهد.
ب- شوالیه های شجاع زیادی برای رسیدن به شاهزاده به رقابت پرداختند.
ج- ” اد” آنقدر برای ن احترام قائل است که همیشه جای خود را در مترو به خانم ها می دهد.
Data
a- The data about the bank robbery were given to the F.B.I
b- After studying the data, we were able to finish our report
c- Unless you are given all the data, you cannot do the math problem
شواهد- اطلاعات- داده ها
الف- شواهد مربوط به سرقت بانک به اف. بی. آی. داده شد.
ب- پس از بررسی اطلاعات توانستیم گزارش خود را تمام کنیم.
ج- اگر همه داده ها را نداشته باشید نمی توانید مسئله ریاضی را حل کنید.
Unaccustomed
a- Coming from Alaska, Claude was unaccustomed to Florida’s heat.
b- The king was unaccustomed to having people disobey him.
c- Unaccustomed as he was to exercise, Vic quickly became tired.
به چیزی عادت نداشتن
الف- چون “کلود” اهل آلاسکا بود به گرمای فلوریدا عادت نداشت.
ب- پادشاه به داشتن مردمی که از او سرپیچی کنند عادت نداشت.
ج- از انجا که “ویک” به تمرین عادت نداشت خیلی زود خسته شد.
Bachelor
a- My brother took an oath to remain a bachelor.
b- In the movie, the married man was mistaken for a bachelor.
c- Before the wedding, all his bachelor friend had a party.
مرد مجرد
الف- برادرم قسم خورد که مجرد باقی بماند.
ب- در این فیلم آن مرد متاهل با فردی مجرد اشتباه گرفته شد.
ج- پیش از مراسم عروسی همه دوستان مجردش جشن گرفتند.
Qualify
a- I am trying to qualify for the job that is now vacant.
b- Since Pauline can’t carry a tune, she is sure that she will never qualify for the Girl’s Chorus.
c- You have to be taller than 5’5″ to qualify as a policeman in our town.
صلاحیت داشتن- واجد شرایط بودن
الف- سعی می کنم برای شغلی که در حال حاضر بلاتصدی است واجد شرایط بشوم.
ب- از آنجا که “پائولین” لحن رسائی ندارد مطمئن است که صلاحیت لازم برای گروه کر دختران را پیدا نخواهد کرد.
ج- قد شما باید بلندتر از ۵.۵ فوت باشد تا صلاحیت پلیس شدن در شهرمان را پیدا کنید.
My brother, the Gentleman
The story of Sir Walter Raleigh who spread his cloak on the ground to keep Queen Elizabeth from the hardship of crossing a muddy puddle can qualify that nobleman for an award as a man of tact and good breeding. My brother Kenny, a bachelor with a keen interest in history, was impressed by that anecdote and thought he might demonstrate his excellent upbringing in a parallel situation.
Accordingly he decide to abandon his subway seat in favor of a woman standing nearby. Although unaccustomed to such generous treatment, the young woman was pleased to accept Kenny’s kind offer. However, her jealous boyfriend swore an oath under his breath because he thought my brother was flirting with his girlfriend. I don’t have any data on the number of young men who get into similar trouble as a result of a gallantgesture, but it’s probably one in a thousand.
Poor Kenny! He pointed to the now vacant seat.
برادرم این مرد محترم
داستان ” سر والتر رالی” که شنل خود را روی زمین پهن کرد تا ملکه را از دشواری عبور از گودالی گل آلود دور نگه دارد می تواند این مرد شریف را بعنوان مردی با درایت و با تربیت شایسته پاداش کند. برادر مجردم “کنی” که علاقه شدیدی به تاریخ دارد تحت تاثیر این داستان قرار گرفت و فکر کرد که او هم می تواند در شرایط مشابهی تربیت عالی اش را نشان دهد. در نتیجه تصمیم گرفت در مترو صندلی اش را به نفع خانمی که کنارش ایستاده بود ترک کند. خانم جوان گر چه به چنین رفتار سخاوتمندانه ای عادت نداشت با خوشحالی پیشنهاد مهربانانه “کنی” را پذیرفت. اما دوست پسر حسود آن خانم زیر لب ناسزایی گفت زیرا فکر می کرد که برادرم دارد با دوست دخترش لاس می زند. در مورد تعداد افراد جوانی که در نتیجه چنین برخوردهای جوانمردانهای دچار مشکلات مشابهی می شوند اطلاعی ندارم اما احتمال آن یک در هزار است.
بیچاره “کنی” او حالا به صندلی اشاره کرد که خالی بود.
۱- corpse
a- When given all the data on the corpse, Columbo was able to solve the murder.
b- The corpse was laid to rest in the vacant coffin.
c- An oath of revenge was sworn over the corpse by his relatives.
۱- جسد- جنازه- مرده
الف- زمانی که تمامی حقایق درباره جسد مشخص شد، کلومبو توانست جنایت را کشف کند.
ب- جنازه در تابوت خالی آرمیده است.
ج- خویشاوندان بالای سر مرده سوگند یاد کردند، انتقام او را بگیرند.
۲- conceal
a- Tris could not conceal his love for Gloria.
b- Count Dracula concealed the corpse in the castle.
c- The money was so cleverly concealed that we were forced to abandon our search for it.
۲- پنهان کردن
الف- تریس نمی توانست عشق خود به گلوریا را پنهان کند.
ب- کنت دراکولا جنازه را در قلعه خود پنهان کرد.
ج- پولها آنقدر ماهرانه پنهان شده بود که مجبور شدیم از جستجو دست بکشیم.
۳- dismal
a- When the weather is so dismal, I sometimes stay in bed all day.
b- I am unaccustomed to this dismal climate.
c- As the dismal reports of the election came in, the senator’s friends tactfully made no mention of them.
۳- دلگیر -گرفته-مایوس کننده
الف- زمانی که هوا گرفته است تمام روز را در رختخواب می مانم.
ب- به این هوای گرفته عادت ندارم.
ج- هنگامیکه گزارش مایوس کننده انتخابات رسید، دوستان سناتور از روی تدبیر اشاره ای به آن نکردند.
۴- frigid
a- It was a great hardship for the men to live through the frigid winter at Valley Forge.
b- The jealous bachelor was treated in a frigid manner by his girlfriend.
c- Inside the butcher’s freezer the temperature was frigid.
۴- خیلی سرد
الف- برای انسان بسیار سخت است که تمام طول زمستان خیلی سرد را در درخ فورج سپری کند.
ب- دوست مرد مجرد حسود با او به سردی برخورد کرد.
ج- دمای داخل فریزر قصابی بسیار سرد بود.
۵- inhabit
a- Eskimos inhabit the frigid part of Alaska.
b- Because Sidney qualified, he was allowed to inhabit the vacant apartment.
c- Many crimes are committed each year against those who inhabit the slum area of our city.
۵- ساکن شدن در- افامت داشتن در
الف- اسکیمو ها در منطقه قطبی آلاسکا زندگی می کنند
ب- چون سیدنی واجد شرایط بوداجازه یافت تا در آپارتمان خالی اقامت کند.
ج- هر ساله بیشتر جنایات بر علیه کسانی است که در مناطق زاغه نشین شهرمان ست دارند.
۶- numb
a- My fingers quickly became numb in the frigid room.
b- A numb feeling came over Mr. Massey as he read the telegram.
c- When the nurse stuck a pin in my numb leg, I felt nothing .
۶- بی حس
الف- انگشتانم در اتاق خیلی سرد به سرعت بی حس شدند.
ب- در حالی که آقای ماسی تلگراف را می خواند، بی حس شد.
ج- زمانی که پرستار سنجاقی را در پای بی حس من فرو کرد، چیزی احساس نکردم.
۷- peril
a- The hunter was abandoned by the natives when he described the peril that lay ahead of them.
b- There is great peril in trying to climb the mountain.
c- Our library is filled with stories of perilous adventures.
۷- خطر
الف- زمانی که شکارچی توضیح داد چه خطری پیش روی بومی هاست، او را ترک کردند.
ب- تلاش برای بالا رفتن از کوه خطرات زیادی به همراه دارد.
ج- کتابخانه ما پر از داستانهایی درباره ماجراجویی های خطرناک است.
۸- recline
a- Richard likes to recline in front of the television set.
b- After reclining on her right arm for an hour Maxine found that is had became numb .
c- My dog’s greatest pleasure is to recline by the warm fireplace.
۸- دراز کشیدن -لم دادن
الف- ریچارد دوست دارد جلوی تلویزیون دراز بکشد.
ب- بعد از اینکه ماکسیم یک ساعت روی بازوی راستش لم داد، متوجه شد بازویش به خواب رفته است.
ج- بزرگترین دلخوشی سگم، دراز کشیدن جلوی شومینه گرم است.
۹- shriek
a- The maid shrieked when she discovered the corpse.
b- With a loud shriek, Ronald fled from the room.
c- Facing the peril of the waterfall, the boatman let out a terrible shriek.
۹- جیغ زدن
الف- وقتی دوشیزه جنازه را پیدا کرد، جیغ کشید.
ب- رونالدو فریاد بلندی کشید و از اتاق گریخت.
ج- وقتی قایقران آبشار را دید احساس خطر کرد و فریاد وحشتناکی کشید.
۱۰- sinister
a- The sinister plot to cheat the widow was uncovered by the police.
b- When the bank guard spied the sinister-looking customer, he drew his gun.
c- I was frightened by the sinister shadow at the bottom of the stairs.
۱۰- پلید- وحشتناک-شیطانی
الف- پلیس نتوانست دسیسه شیطانی برای فریب زن بیوه را فاش کند.
ب- زمانیکه نگهبان بانک متوجه شد مشتری شرور است، اسلحه اش را کشید.
ج- سایه وحشتناک انتهای راه پله، مرا ترساند.
۱۱- tempt
a- A banana split can tempt me to break my diet.
b- The sight of beautiful Louise tempted the bachelor to change his mind about marriage.
c- Your offer of a job tempts me greatly.
۱۱- وسوسه کردن
الف- دسر موز می تواند مرا وسوسه کند، تا رژیم غذایی ام را بشکنم.
ب- با دیدن لویس زیبا مرد مجرد وسوسه شد تا دیدگاهش را نسبت به ازدواج تغییر دهد.
ج- پیشنهاد کاری تو مرا به شدت وسوسه کرد.
۱۲- wager
a- I lost a small wager on the Super Bowl.
b- After winning the wager, Tex treated everyone to free drinks.
c- It is legal to make a wager in the state of Nevada.
۱۲- شرط
الف- من شرط کوچکی را در سوپر باولینگ باختم.
ب- بعد از اینکه تکس را برد همه را به نوشیدنی مجانی مهمان کرد.
ج- در ایالت نوادا قانونی است.
متن نمونه:
Terror in the Cemetery
I like to bet on anything that is exciting, so when my friends tried to tempt me with an offer, I took it. The idea was for me to spend a frigid December night in a cemetery, all alone. in order to win twenty dollars. Little did I realize that they would use dirty tricks to try to frighten me to abandon the cemetery and, therefore, lose my wager . My plan was to recline in front of a large grave, covered by a warm blanket, with a flashlight to help me cut through the dismal darkness. After midnight, I heard a wild shriek. I thought I saw the grave open and a corpse rise out of it. Although I was somewhat numb with fear. I tried to keep my senses. Using good judgment, I knew that no peril could come to me from that sinister figure. When I did not run in terror, my friends, who had decided to conceal themselves behind the nearby tombstones, came out and we all had a good laugh Those spirits that may inhabit a cemetery must have had a good laugh, too
وحشت در گورستان
دوست دارم روی هر چیزی که هیجان انگیز باشد کنم. از اینرو زمانیکه دوستانم تلاش کردند مرا با پیشنهادی وسوسه کنند آنرا پذیرفتم. پیشنهاد این بود که یک شب بسیار سرد ماه دسامبر را تک و تنها در قبرستانی سپری کنم تا بیست دلار برنده شوم. خیلی کم متوجه بودم که آنها از حقه های کثیفی استفاده خواهند کرد که مرا بترسانند گورستان را ترک کنم و در نتیجه شرطم را ببازم. نقشه ام این بود که جلوی قبر بزرگی زیر پتویی گرم و با چراغ قوه ای که تاریکی غم انگیز را پشت سر گذارم، دراز بکشم. پس از نیمه شب جیغ وحشیانه ای را شنیدم. فکر کردم که دیدم قبر باز شد و جسدی از آن بیرون آمد. گرچه تا حدی از ترس بی حس شده بودم اما سعی کردم حواسم را جمع کنم. با مراجعه به عقلم پی بردم که هیچ خطری نمی تواند از آن چهره پلید به سمت من بیاید. وقتیکه از ترس فرار نکردم دوستانم که تصمیم گرفته بودند خودشان را پشت سنگ قبرهای اطراف پنهان کنند بیرون آمدند و همگی کلی خندیدیم. لابد ارواحی هم که در آن گورستان ست داشتند حسابی خندیده اند.
(In American English, a summary of your work history is typically known as a résumé; however, in British English, the word CV (the abbreviation of curriculum vitae) is preferred. For the purposes of this article, we will use the word CV to refer to both.)
First impressions are crucial. When you meet people, you weigh them up within seconds. Are they organized, dynamic, trustworthy? Employers reading your CV effectively ‘meet’ you for the first time. They ask themselves the same questions about you and make their decision within seconds.
That is why making the right first impression with your CV is crucial.
Research shows that one thing recruiters expect in a CV is ease of reading. By making yours easy to read, you are demonstrating a valuable transferable skill from the outset: the ability to present information in a coherent, appealing manner. Ways of making your CV easy to read include:
The key points you write about your experience and skills must match those required for the job as advertised. Mirror key terms used in the ad, but avoid repeating word for word what the ad says. Find the right ‘tone of voice’. Your language does not need to be overly formal—but do not be too informal either. And avoid unnecessary jargon.
Think of your CV as an advertising brochure: it is advertising you. It should be as visually attractive as you can make it. At the very least, it has to be neat and tidy. Using lots of different typefaces will make it look cluttered and untidy. Choosing the right type size is also important.
And never print your CV double-sided.
The standard length for a CV is two pages (on separate sheets). If you write more than that, for most jobs it is unlikely to be read. However, if you have more than 10 years of work experience, your CV may be longer. Your challenge is to condense your experience, career history, skills, and talents in the most effective way.
Every word you use has to count, has to have a purpose. In a CV, short is good. Short words, short sentences, short paragraphs.
Employers automatically reject a CV containing spelling mistakes or typos. This is fact, not just a myth invented by teachers and lecturers. That means you must make sure your CV is absolutely typo-free and has correct grammar.
And do not rely on spellcheckers. They accept things like ‘there responsibilities include’ instead of ‘their responsibilities’.
Your CV should make it clear what you have achieved to date. That will give employers a clue about what you will be able to achieve. Active, dynamic verbs put the emphasis on your achievements.
For example, ‘I devised and implemented a new system’ makes your active role very clear. Writing ‘I was responsible for a new system’ would be ambiguous: did you invent it, or did you merely manage it?
There is no set pattern for CVs, but they all must include certain things, such as personal details and skills and qualifications.
There are three main types:
There are many different types of writing: essays, reports, letters, speeches, work emails. Whatever your reason for putting words on the page, and whatever your style, there are some universal tips that will help you tailor your message and improve your writing:
The most basic question to ask yourself before you start is why you are writing.
In an academic essay or assignment, your purpose is to convey information and facts and draw conclusions. But if you are writing a business report, you may want to make recommendations for specific actions. In a letter of complaint you will be looking for a specific result, such as a refund.
Keep your purpose in mind at all times to avoid going off topic. Even better: write it down in as few words as possible, print it out, and keep it next to you as you write.
In conversation, we instinctively adapt what we say and how we say it to suit the people we are talking to. We talk to our manager or lecturer in one way, to friends in another, and so on. For good writing it is essential to do the same: choose a writing style and words that the people for whom you are writing will feel comfortable with and react well to. Academic writing has one style, business writing another, blog writing another.
Far too often people write without a plan. The result is often disjointed writing, with parts that don’t connect, no clear way in, and no obvious way out. Whether you are writing a 10,000-word report or a letter of complaint, creating a clear plan and structure is the crucial first step to getting your message across quickly and in the most effective way. Mindmapping, or organizing information visually with diagrams, can be a useful tool.
Your aim in writing is to communicate ideas and information to other people, and you must keep that in mind with every word and sentence you write. Constantly ask yourself who each item of information is really for.
Because you have a clear idea about what and why you are writing, it is easy to get carried away and include information that is important to you only—and nobody else. If you write it you could well be wasting your time and other people’s.
Your task is to help readers understand your message quickly and precisely. To do this, it is necessary to show them clearly how the different parts relate to each other.
Each sentence, each paragraph should be relevant to what comes before and what comes after. You should use words and phrases that connect or contrast to show these connections, for example, as a result, in this way, in contrast. Informative headings also help readers follow your train of thought, so don’t be afraid to use them.
In certain types of writing, such as scientific contexts, passive verbs are appropriate and widely used. But in more general writing people often use them inappropriately, or overuse them.
The problem is that they can make writing sound impersonal when it needs to be personal because they highlight the action rather than the person performing it. But very often who is performing the action is a crucial part of the message. It is important to understand when the passive is useful and when it is not.
۱- typical
a- The sinister character in the movie wore a typical costume, a dark shirt, loud tie, and tight jacket.
b- The horse ran its typical race, a slow start and a slower finish, and my uncle lost his wager.
c- It was typical of the latecomer to conceal the real cause of his lateness.
۱- ویژه- مخصوص
الف- شخصیت شرور در فیلم، لباسی نمادین به تن داشت، پیراهنی تیره، کراواتی بلند و یک کت تنگ.
ب- اسب در مسابقهای که ویژه او بودبا شروعی کند و پایانی کندتر شرکت کردو عمویم شرط خود را باخت.
ج- پنهان کردن دلیل واقعی تاخیر، از خصوصیات فردی بود که دیر می آمد.
۲- minimum
a- Studies show that adults need a minimum of six hours sleep.
b- The minimum charge for a telephone, even if no calls are made, is about $30 a month.
c- Congress has set a minimum wage for all workers.
۲- حداقل- کمترین
الف- مطالعات نشان می دهد که افراد بالغ حداقل به شش ساعت خواب نیاز دارند.
ب- کمترین هزینه تلفن، حتی اگر هیچ مکالمه ای هم انجام نشود، حدود سی دلار در ماه است.
ج- مجلس حداقل دستمزد را برای تمام کارگران مقرر کرده است.
۳- scarce
a- Chairs that are older than one hundred years are scarce.
b- Because there is little moisture in the desert, trees are scarce.
c- How scarce are good cooks .
۳- کم- کمیاب
الف- صندلی هایی که بیش از صد سال قدمت دارند، کمیاب هستند.
ب- به خاطر اینکه در بیابان رطوبت کمی وجود دارد، درختان خیلی کمیابند.
ج- آشپزهای خوب چقدر کم اند.
۴- annual
a- The annual convention of musicians takes place in Hollywood.
b- The publishers of the encyclopedia put out a book each year called an annual.
c- Plants that live only one year are called annuals.
۴- سالیانه- سالانه
الف- همایش سالیانه موسیقی دانان در هالیوود برگزار می شود.
ب- ناشران دایره المعارف هر سال کتابی را منتشر می کنند که سالنامه نامیده می شود.
ج- گیاهانی که فقط یک سال دوام می آورند، یک ساله نامیده می شوند.
۵- persuade
a- Can you persuade him to give up his bachelor days and get married?
b- No one could persuade the captain to leave the sinking ship.
c- Beth’s shriek persuade jesse that she was in real danger.
۵- متقاعد کردن
الف- آیا می توانی او را تشویق کنی که روزهای مجردیش را رها کند و ازدواج نماید؟
ب- هیچ کس نتوانست ناخدا را متقاعد کند تا کشتی در حال غرق شدن را ترک کند.
ج- فریاد” بث” جسی را متقاعد کرد که او در معرض خطر جدی است.
۶- essential
a- The essential items in the cake are flour, sugar, and shortening.
b- It is essential that we follow the road map.
c- Several layers of thin clothing are essential to keeping warm in frigid climates .
۶- لازم- ضروری
الف- آرد، شکر و روغن شیرینی پزی مواد اصلی کیک هستند.
ب- لازم است که نقشه جاده را دنبال کنیم.
ج- برای گرم ماندن در آب و هوای سرد چند لایه لباس نازک لازم است.
۷- blend
a- The colors of the rainbow blend into one another.
b- A careful blend of fine products will result in delicious food.
c- When jose blends the potatoes together, they come out very smooth.
۷- مخلوط کردن- ترکیب کردن
الف- رنگ های رنگین کمان با یکدیگر ترکیب می شوند.
ب- غذای خوشمزه ترکیب دقیقی است از فرآورده های خوب .
ج- وقتی که “خوزه” سیب زمینی ها را با هم مخلوط کرد، خیلی نرم شدند.
۸- visible
a- The ship was barely visible through the dense fog.
b- Before the stars are visible, the sky has to become quite dark .
c- You need a powerful lens to make some germs visible.
۸- قابل رویت- مرئی
الف- کشتی در میان مه غلیظ به زحمت پیدا بود.
ب- قبل از این که ستاره ها قابل رویت شوند، آسمان باید کاملاً تاریک شود.
ج- به عدسی های قوی تری نیاز داری تا بعضی از میکروب ها را مرئی کنی .
۹- expensive
a- Because diamonds are scarce they are expensive.
b- Margarine is much less expensive than butter.
c- Shirley’s expensive dress created a great deal of excitement at the party.
۹- گران
الف- الماس ها به علت کمیابی گران هستند.
ب- کره بسیار گرانتر از مارگاین است.
ج- لباس گرانبهای “شرلی” هیجان زیادی در مهمانی به وجود آورد.
۱۰- talent
a- Medori’s talent was noted when she was in first grade .
b- Feeling that he had the essential talent Carlos tried out for the school play.
c- Hard work can often make up for a lack of talent.
۱۰- استعداد ذاتی
الف- استعداد “مدوری” وقتی کلاس اول بود مورد توجه قرار گرفت.
ب- کارلوس که احساس می کرداستعداد لازم را دارد، شرکت در مسابقه مدرسه را امتحان کرد.
ج- سخت کوشی اغلب بی استعدادی را جبران می کند.
۱۱- devise
a- The burglars devised a scheme for entering the bank at night.
b- I would like to devise a method for keeping my toes from becoming numb while I am ice skating.
c- If we could devise a plan for using the abandoned building, we could save thousands of dollars.
۱۱- ابداع کردن- برنامه ریزی کردن
الف- سارقین برای ورود شبانه به بانک، برنامه ریزی کردند.
ب- دوست دارم روشی ابداع کنم که وقتی اسکی روی یخ می کنم مانع بی حس شدن انگشتان پایم شوم.
ج- اگر بتوانیم برنامه ای برای استفاده از ساختمان متروکه بیاندیشیم، می توانیم هزاران دلار پس انداز کنیم .
۱۲- wholesale
a- The wholesale price of milk is six cents a quart lower than retail.
b- Many people were angered by the wholesale slaughter of birds.
c- By buying my eggs wholesale I save fifteen dollars a year.
۱۲- عمده ی- گسترده
الف- قیمت عمده ی شیر در هر کوارت، شش سنت کمتر از خرده ی آن است.
ب- بسیاری از مردم از کشتار گسترده پرندگان عصبانی می شوند.
ج- با تخم مرغ به قیمت عمده ی هر سال پانزده دلار پس انداز می کنم.
An Unusual Strike
The baseball strike of 1994-95, which kept the public from seeing the annual World series, was not atypical labor dispute in which low-paid workers try to persuade their employers to grant a raise above their minimum wage.On the contrary, players who earned millions of dollars yearly, who were visible on TV commercials, drove expensive autos, and dined with presidents, withheld their essential skills until the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of our government were forced to devise solutions to the quarrel.The team owners, a blend of lawyers, manufacturers, corporate executives, etc. felt that something had to be done about the huge salaries that the players were demanding.Since the talent beyond the major leagues was scarce they had to start spring training in 1995 withwholesale invitation to replacement players.The regular athletes returned in late April but there was a feeling that the strike could happen again.
یک اعتصاب عجیب
اعتصاب بیس بال سالهای ۱۹۹۴-۱۹۹۵ که مانع شد عموم مردم رقابتهای جهانی سالیانه را ببینند، بحث کارگری معمولی نبود که در آن کارگران با دستمزد پایین تلاش کنند کارفرمایانشان را متقاعد کنند فراتر از حداقل دستمزدشان به آنها ترفیع اعطاء کنند. برعکس بازیکنانی که سالانه میلیونها دلار بدست می آورند، در پیامهای بازرگانی تلویزیونی قابل رویت بودند، اتومبیل گران قیمت سوار می شوند و با روسای جمهور غذا می خورند، در مهارت اصولی شان دریغ کردند تا اینکه قوای مجریه، مقننه و قضایی دولت ما مجبور شدند برای نزاع آنها راه حلهایی را ابداع کنند. صاحبان تیم ها، که ترکیبی از وکلا، تولیدکنندگان، مدیران سازمانها و غیره بودند احساس کردند که باید پیرامون حقوقهای بالایی که بازیکنان تقاضا می کردند کاری انجام شود. از آنجاییکه استعداد، فراتر از لیگ های اصلی نادر بود، مجبور بودند آموزش بهاری سال ۱۹۹۵ را با دعوت گسترده از بازیکنان جایگزین آغاز کنند. ورزشکاران ثابت در اواخر ماه آوریل بازگشتند اما این احساس وجود داشت که اعتصاب ممکن است دوباره اتفاق افتد.
درباره این سایت